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NEWS ALERTS | Are we witnessing depeasantisation in Indian agriculture?
Are we witnessing depeasantisation in Indian agriculture?

Are we witnessing depeasantisation in Indian agriculture?

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published Published on Oct 2, 2021   modified Modified on Oct 2, 2021

The newly released Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural India (NSS 77th Round) establishes the fact that the farm households are more and more relying on wage incomes instead of 'net incomes from crop cultivation' for their livelihoods. In Marxian lexicon, proletarisation (a term that we can loosely use for depeasantisation) refers to the process in which the farmers/ tillers are increasingly pushed out of farming to be employed as wage labourers. Two of the prime reasons (push factors), among others, for a farmer to leave farming are: a. Fall in income and profitability associated with cultivation vis-à-vis other professions, thus leaving no choice before him/ her but to work as a wage worker; and b. Land acquisition for industrial and other purposes without adequate compensation (besides rehabilitation and resettlement) makes a farmer leave farming as a profession (if we ignore the option of becoming a tenant farmer). 

Wage income versus income from cultivation

The report related to the NSS 77th Round shows that the average monthly income of a farm household (when only the paid out expenditure is considered) was Rs. 10,218 during crop year 2018-19 (Rs. 10,285 in July 2018-December 2018 and Rs. 10,119 in January 2019-June 2019). Please see chart-1.  

Note: Please click here to access the data in a spreadsheet

Source: Table-23A, Appendix A, NSS Report No. 587: Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural India, 2019, NSS 77th Round, please click here to access   
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This average monthly income (i.e. Rs. 10,218) of a farm household (when only the paid out expenditure or out-of-pocket expenditure is considered) during crop year 2018-19 was arrived at by adding up various components i.e. 'income from wages' (Rs. 4,063), 'income from leasing out of land' (Rs. 134), 'net receipt from crop production' (Rs. 3,798), 'net receipt from farming of animals' (Rs. 1,582) and 'net receipt from non-farm business' (Rs. 641). 

According to the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households in India (January-December 2013), which is related to the NSS 70th Round, the average monthly income (i.e. Rs. 6,427) of an agricultural household (when only the paid out expenditure is considered) during crop year 2012-13 was calculated by totalling various components i.e. 'income from wages' (Rs. 2,071), 'net receipt from cultivation/ crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (Rs. 3,081), 'net receipt from farming of animals' (Rs. 763) and 'net receipt from non-farm business' (Rs. 512). It should be noted that the 'income from leasing out of land' was not taken into account to get the average monthly income of an agricultural household during crop year 2012-13. Hence, it would be wrong to compare the average monthly incomes of an agricultural household (when only the paid out expenditure is considered) between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19. 

If the 'income from leasing out of land' is deducted from the average monthly income of an agricultural household in 2018-19, the modified average monthly farm income turns out to be Rs. 10,084. It would be now correct to say that the average monthly income (in nominal terms) of a farm household increased from Rs. 6,427 to Rs. 10,084 between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19 i.e. by almost 56.9 percent.   

It is prudent to compare the various components of the average monthly income of a farm household for a particular crop year. One can find from the report related to the NSS 70th that 'income from wages' (Rs. 2,071) was lower than the 'net receipt from cultivation/ crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (Rs. 3,081) per month for a farm household during July 2012-June 2013. However, the report related to the NSS 77th indicates that 'income from wages' (Rs. 4,063) was greater than the 'net receipt from cultivation/ crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (Rs. 3,798) per month for a farm household during July 2018-June 2019. Put differently, an ordinary farm household now earns more as wage income in comparison to 'net receipt from crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered'.   

It can be seen that in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Group of UTs, the average monthly 'income from wages' exceeded 'net receipt from cultivation/ crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' during July 2012-June 2013. However, during crop year 2018-19, 'income from wages' exceeded 'net receipt from cultivation/ crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland, Odisha, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, West Bengal and Group of UTs.

It should be noted here that the imputed expenses related to saved inputs such as seeds, manure, unpaid family labour (both human and animal), etc. were not recorded in the NSS 70th Round while collecting expenses pertaining to farm business. Besides that, 'income of agricultural households from leasing out of land’ was not collected in previous rounds of the Situation Assessment Surveys (SAS). So, it is not possible to compare the average monthly income per agricultural household (considering both the paid out and imputed expenses) in 2018-19 with that of 2012-13. 

It can be observed from the data (please click here and here) related to NSS 77th Round that the 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation -- when both the paid out and imputed expenses are considered' of a farm household was Rs. 3,058 in crop year 2018-19, whereas the 'net receipt from crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' was Rs. 3,798 in the same year. 

Please note that the imputed expenditure or implicit cost is the opportunity cost equal to what an agricultural household must give up in order to use a factor of production (saved inputs such as seeds, manure, unpaid family labour -- both human and animal) which it already possesses and thus does not pay rent. 

Income from leasing out of land -- reverse tenancy 

In general, the large land holding farm households lease out land to small and marginal farmers and earn rent income. However, from 1970s onward a phenomenon termed ‘reverse tenancy’ was noticed in the northern and western states (thanks to the Green Revolution), where the smaller farm households (in terms of land possession upto 2 hectares) leased out their land to semi-medium (2.00-4.00 hectares) and medium farmers (4.00-10.00 hectares). It was relatively easier for the smaller farm households to earn their livelihoods from wage activities (like working on others' farms as agricultural labourers) rather than crop cultivation.

In his paper titled 'Reverse Tenancy in Punjab Agriculture: Impact of Technological Change', published in 1989, Iqbal Singh stated that due to technological development and introduction of machines in agriculture, a new class of entrepreneurial farmers came into being in the Green Revolution belt (i.e. Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh) who leased in land to increase the unit of their cultivation with the intention of utilising the modern mechanical inputs more adequately. While some Green Revolution inputs like fertilisers, seeds, insecticides, pesticides, etc. being divisible, were used irrespective of farm size, inputs like tractors, tube wells, threshers, combine harvesters, etc. being indivisible and also requiring large investments, were accessed only by the large farmers and not the smaller ones. Due to their relatively better access to capital assets and financial resources, large farmers had been in a better position to lease in land. Smaller peasants, lacking capital, leased out their land to such farmers. Bigger farmers were able to cultivate leased-in land profitably with hired labour owing to increased productivity and standardisation of work with machines. 

Punjab, which was known for agricultural prosperity during the 1970s and 1980s thanks to the Green Revolution, has increasingly witnessed its small and marginal farmers being pushed out of the agricultural sector. Based on a survey (conducted in 2012-13) of 288 farmers from 12 villages -- 2 villages from each of the 6 districts that represent various agro-climatic zones -- Sukhpal Singh and Shruti Bhogal’s paper revealed that most of the small and marginal farmers who left farming started working as wage labourers, thus corroborating the painful aspect of depeasantisation.  

While reviewing micro studies from different regions of rural India, HR Sharma (2010) in his paper titled 'Magnitude, Structure and Determinants of Tenancy in Rural India -- A State Level Analysis' summarised some of the interesting features of the land lease market. He made the following observations about the land lease market in rural India. 

"First, the proportion of leased-in land is significantly higher than reported by NSS data; in some cases, it is as high as 20-25 per cent of gross cultivated area. Further, the incidence of tenancy is higher in agriculturally developed regions compared to backward regions and all classes of households participate in the lease market both as lessors and lessees. Among crops, the proportion of leased-in land is very high in case of non-foodgrain crops compared to food crops. Tenancy contracts are oral, and most of them are for a short period. Second, while in agriculturally backward regions, the traditional pattern of tenancy is followed wherein the small and marginal farmers dominate lease market as lessees and large and medium farmers as lessors is more common, in developed region the lease market is in a state of transition and the trend towards reverse tenancy has become more pronounced. Third, more recent studies show that small and marginal farmers have started leasing-out agricultural land consequent to increase in the cost of production, growing scarcity of water, falling returns and increasing uncertainty due to erratic weather conditions. Fourth, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that many farmers, including small and marginal ones, are leaving their land fallow in view of the restrictive tenancy laws. This tendency is particularly more pronounced in states where tenancy is legally prohibited. Fifth, share tenancy with input cost sharing continues to be an important mode of leasing-in land, particularly for small and marginal farmers. Though output sharing ratios vary from region to region, most of the studies report 50:50 sharing. In agriculturally backward regions, share tenancy with input cost sharing is more common compared to agriculturally developed regions where fixed rent tenancy is more popular. The micro studies seem to suggest that small and marginal farmers prefer to lease-in land under share tenancy with input cost sharing, perhaps because of two reasons; one, lack of resources to pay cash rent in advance under fixed money and second, their inability to bear the entire risk of crop failure which has increased in recent times. Further, almost all studies show that the area leased-in for growing non-foodgrain crops is under fixed money. Sixth, studies examining the effect of tenancy on the inputs use and agricultural productivity have thrown up mixed results. While some find use of low amounts of inputs and low level of yields on the leased-in plots compared to owned plots, the findings of others are just contrary to these. An exhaustive survey of literature, however, suggests that there is no conclusive evidence to support the hypothesis that yields under share tenancy are lower than under owner farming or fixed rent leasehold tenancy. Likewise, there is also no conclusive evidence to suggest that yield levels for households involved in interlocking of factor markets are lower than their counterparts not involved in such arrangements. Seventh, the findings of micro studies broadly support the hypothesis that households of different size categories participate in the lease market to utilise their indivisible and non-tradable inputs and capital resources like family labour, bullock labour and machinery more optimally. However, more recent studies also report a variety of other important factors like absenteeism of land owners, inferior quality of land, land not suitably located, escalation in the cost of production, growing uncertainty in crop production, etc. that oblige landowners to lease-out land."  

In order to see how much income is made from leasing out of land by farm households with various size classes of land possessed, Punjab and Haryana -- two agriculturally prosperous states -- have been chosen in this news alert. It should be noted that the SAS report related to the NSS 77th Round did not provide data on the rent paid by various classes of lease holding farm households to the lease granting farm households. Thus, it is difficult to say with precision that a small/ marginal lessor resorted to reverse tenancy (i.e. becoming a rent earner instead of a rent payer) in the advanced agricultural regions by earning income from leasing out of land to medium and large lessees. Therefore, the observations made by us after going through the report related to the 77th NSS Round should be considered as indicative only, which corroborates the findings made by several micro studies done in Punjab and Haryana. As mentioned earlier, 'income of farm households from leasing out of land’ was not collected in previous rounds of the Situation Assessment Surveys (SAS).  

In Punjab, a farm household with possessed land’s size class '0.01-0.40 hectare' earned more 'income from leasing out of land' (i.e. Rs. 3,916) in comparison to 'net receipt from crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (Rs. 593) every month during crop year 2018-19. The average 'income from wages' per month for this class (0.01-0.40 hectare) of farm households was Rs. 10,048. We also find that a farm household with possessed land’s size class 'less than 0.01 hectare' earned almost 26.6 percent lesser average 'income from leasing out of land' (i.e. Rs. 2,141) vis-à-vis 'net receipt from crop production -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (i.e. Rs. 2,916) every month during July 2018-June 2019. The average 'income from wages' per month for this class (less than 0.01 hectare) of farm households was Rs. 5,025. For farm households with possessed land’s size classes 'less than 0.01 hectare' and '0.01-0.40 hectare' there was little incentive to carry out crop cultivation. It is because for these two land possessing classes, the sum of the average 'income from wages' and the average 'income from leasing out of land' (the latter being quite substantial) was far greater than the average 'net receipt from crop production' every month during July 2018-June 2019.  

For the farm households with possessed land’s size class '1.01-2.00 hectares', '2.01-4.00 hectares', '4.01-10.00 hectares' and 'more than 10.00 hectares', the sum of the average 'income from wages' and the average 'income from leasing out of land' was far lower than the average 'net receipt from crop production' every month during crop year 2018-19. As the size class of land possessed increased from '1.01-2.00 hectares' to 'more than 10.00 hectares' in Punjab, the average 'income from leasing out of land' increased along with a rise in the average 'net receipt from crop production' per month. 

As a whole, an average farm household in Punjab earned Rs. 5,981 as 'income from wages', Rs. 2,652 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 12,597 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 4,457 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 1,014 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' every month during crop year 2018-19.

In Haryana, one finds that an agricultural household with possessed land’s size class '0.01-0.40 hectare' earned more average 'income from leasing out of land' (i.e. Rs. 1,131) as compared to average 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (Rs. 768) per month during crop year 2018-19. The average 'income from wages' every month for this class (0.01-0.40 hectare) of farm households was Rs. 10,785. It can be also seen that an agricultural household with possessed land’s size class 'less than 0.01 hectare' earned almost negligible average 'income from leasing out of land' (i.e. Rs. 39) as compared to the average 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation -- when only the paid out expenditure is considered' (i.e. Rs. 5,022) every month during July 2018-June 2019. The average 'income from wages' per month for this class (less than 0.01 hectare) of farm households stood at Rs. 9,932.  

For the farm households with possessed land’s size class '1.01-2.00 hectares', '2.01-4.00 hectare', '4.01-10.00 hectares' and 'more than 10.00 hectares', the sum of the average 'income from wages' and the average 'income from leasing out of land' was far lower than the average 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation' every month during crop year 2018-19. Unlike Punjab, as the size class of land possessed increased in Haryana from '2.01-4.00 hectares' to 'more than 10.00 hectares', the average 'income from leasing out of land' fell and the average 'net receipt from crop production' grew. 

In general, an average farm household in Haryana earned Rs. 7,861 as 'income from wages', Rs. 621 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 9,092 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 4,020 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 1,249 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' per month during crop year 2018-19.

The data related to NSS 77th Round reveals that irrespective of the size class of land possessed at the national level, the average 'net receipt from crop production' outweighed the average 'income from leasing out of land' per month. For the size classes of land possessed 'less than 0.01 hectare', '0.01-0.40 hectare' and '0.41-1.00 hectare', the average 'income from wages' was greater than the average 'net receipt from crop production' (considering only the paid out expenditure) every month. For the size classes of land possessed '1.01-2.00 hectares', '2.01-4.00 hectares', '4.01-10.00 hectares' and 'more than 10.00 hectares', the average 'income from wages' was lower than the average 'net receipt from crop production' (considering only the paid out expenditure) every month.

Income of SC, ST and OBC farm households

At the national level, an average Scheduled Tribe (ST) farm household earned Rs. 4,546 as 'income from wages', Rs. 29 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 3,088 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 1,047 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 269 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' per month during crop year 2018-19. Therefore, the average monthly income of a ST farm household was Rs. 8,979 in crop year 2018-19. Please see table-1.

In India, an average Scheduled Caste (SC) agricultural household earned Rs. 4,315 as 'income from wages', Rs. 61 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 2,052 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 1,137 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 578 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' per month during crop year 2018-19. Therefore, the average monthly income of a SC farm household was Rs. 8,143 during July 2018-June 2019.

An average Other Backward Class (OBC) agricultural household in our country earned Rs. 3,686 as 'income from wages', Rs. 78 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 3,763 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 1,779 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 671 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' per month during crop year 2018-19. Therefore, the average monthly income of an OBC farm household was Rs. 9,977 in crop year 2018-19.

Table 1: Average monthly income (in Rs.) per agricultural household belonging to various social groups (considering only the paid out expenditure) in crop year 2018-19

Source: For the data related to July 2018-June 2019, please consult -- Table-23A, Appendix A, NSS Report No. 587: Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural India, 2019, NSS 77th Round, please click here to access
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At the national level, an average 'others' caste (i.e. so-called forward caste) farm household earned Rs. 4,330 as 'income from wages', Rs. 355 as 'income from leasing out of land', Rs. 5,455 as 'net receipt from crop production', Rs. 1,821 as 'net receipt from farming of animals' and Rs. 845 as 'net receipt from non-farm business' per month during crop year 2018-19. Therefore, the average monthly income of a 'others' caste farm household was Rs. 12,806 during July 2018-June 2019.

Other findings

As chart-1 indicates (see above), the highest level of average monthly income per agricultural household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was seen in Punjab (Rs. 26,701), followed by Haryana (Rs. 22,841), Jammu and Kashmir (Rs. 18,918), Kerala (Rs. 17,915) and Uttarakhand (Rs. 13,552) in crop year 2018-19 (if we don't consider the north eastern states). The SAS related to NSS 77th Round shows that the 'net receipt from crop production' (one of the components of total monthly income) was Rs. 4,99,029 per month for possessed land's size class of '4.01-10.00 hectares' and the same was Rs. 11,56,017 per month for possessed land's size class of 'more than 10.00 hectares' in Meghalaya during crop year 2018-19. However, the 'net receipt from crop production' was Rs. 52,357 per month for possessed land's size class of '4.01-10.00 hectares' and the same was Rs. 70,355 per month for possessed land's size class of 'more than 10.00 hectares' in Punjab during crop year 2018-19. Therefore, the average monthly income of farm households in Meghalaya during July 2018-June 2019 seems to be an aberration. 

Chart-1 also shows that the lowest level of average monthly income per agricultural household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was found in Jharkhand (Rs. 4,895), followed by Odisha (Rs. 5,112), West Bengal (Rs. 6,762), Bihar (Rs. 7,542) and Uttar Pradesh (Rs. 8,061) in crop year 2018-19.     
    

Note: Please click here to access the data in a spreadsheet

Source: For the data related to July 2018-December 2018, January 2019-June 2019 and July 2018-June 2019, please consult -- Table-23A, Appendix A, NSS Report No. 587: Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural India, 2019, NSS 77th Round, please click here to access

For the data related to July 2012-June 2013, please consult -- Table-7, Appendix A, Key Indicators of Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households in India (January-December 2013), NSS 70th Round, MoSPI, GoI, December 2014, please click here to access    
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Chart-2 reveals that the highest level of average monthly 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was found in Punjab (Rs. 12,597), followed by Haryana (Rs. 9,092), Karnataka (Rs. 6,835), Uttarakhand (Rs. 5,277) and Telangana (Rs. 4,937) in crop year 2018-19 (if we don't consider the north eastern states). It also shows that the lowest level of average monthly 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was seen in Jharkhand (Rs. 1,102), followed by West Bengal (Rs. 1,547), Odisha (Rs. 1,569), Jammu and Kashmir (Rs. 1,980) and Himachal Pradesh (Rs. 2,552) in crop year 2018-19 (if we ignore the north eastern states).  

The highest level of average monthly 'net receipt from crop production' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was found in Punjab (Rs. 10,862), followed by Haryana (Rs. 7,867), Karnataka (Rs. 4,930), Telangana (Rs. 4,227) and Madhya Pradesh (Rs. 4,016) in crop year 2012-13 (if we don't consider the north eastern states). The lowest level of average monthly 'net receipt from crop production/ cultivation' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) was seen in West Bengal (Rs. 979), followed by Odisha (Rs. 1,407), Jharkhand (Rs. 1,451), Bihar (Rs. 1,715) and Tamil Nadu (Rs. 1,917) in crop year 2012-13 (if we ignore the north eastern states).

Between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19, the average monthly 'net receipt (in Rs.) from crop production/ cultivation' per agricultural household (considering only the paid out expenditure) experienced negative growth rates in Arunachal Pradesh (-12.5 percent), Assam (-22.5 percent), Himachal Pradesh (-11.3 percent), Jammu and Kashmir (-35.4 percent), Jharkhand (-24.1 percent) and Nagaland (-37.4 percent). The highest increase in the average monthly 'net receipt (in Rs.) from crop production/ cultivation' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19 was observed in Meghalaya (225.4 percent), followed by Sikkim (139.7 percent), Uttarakhand (108.5 percent), Mizoram (90.6 percent) and Bihar (59.7 percent), if the north eastern states are not ignored.  

Between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19, the average monthly ‘net receipt (in Rs.) from crop production/ cultivation’ per agricultural household (considering only the paid out expenditure) grew by 23.3 percent in India. Please see chart-2.

Table 2: Rate of inflation in Consumer Price Index

Note: Base: 2012=100 

Source: Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy 2020-21, Reserve Bank of India, please click here to access  

Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy 2015-16, RBI, please click here to access   

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Table-2 shows that the average 'Consumer Price Index - Combined' grew by almost 34.0 percent between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19. If we take that into account, then the growth in the average monthly 'net receipt from crop production or cultivation' per farm household (considering only the paid out expenditure) in real terms during this time period was -10.7 percent in India.

The average 'Consumer Price Index - Rural' increased by around 35.3 percent between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19. If we take that into consideration, then the growth in the average monthly 'net receipt from crop production or cultivation' per agricultural household (considering only the paid out expenditure) in real terms during this time period was -12.0 percent at the national level. In other words, one can say that in real terms, the average monthly 'net receipt earned by a farm household from crop cultivation' (considering only the paid out expenditure) declined between the crop years 2012-13 and 2018-19.

Please click here to know more about the methodology and definitions used in the NSS 77th Round and NSS 70th Round. 

References

Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holdings of Households in Rural India, 2019, NSS 77th Round, January 2019-December 2019, National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), please click here to access

Key Indicators of Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households in India (January-December 2013), NSS 70th Round, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, GoI, December 2014, please click here to access, please click here to access   

Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy 2020-21, Reserve Bank of India, please click here to access  

Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy 2015-16, Reserve Bank of India, please click here to access   

Categorisation of farmers, Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, 5 February, 2015, please click here and here to access  

Depeasantization in Punjab: Status of farmers who left farming -Sukhpal Singh and Shruti Bhogal, Current Science, Vol. 106, No. 10, 25 May, 2014, please click here to access  

Magnitude, Structure and Determinants of Tenancy in Rural India-A State Level Analysis -HR Sharma, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Volume 65, No. 1, January-March 2010, please click here to access 

Reverse Tenancy in Punjab Agriculture-Impact of Technological Change -Iqbal Singh, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 24, Issue No. 25, 24 June, 1989, please click here to access

News alert: Southern states had a higher proportion of indebted farm households in 2019, shows NSO survey, Inclusive Media for Change, published on 21 September, 2021, please click here to access 

News alert: Where are Punjab's famous Small farmers? Inclusive Media for Change, published on 18 June 2014, please click here to access  

Going back in time -Yoginder K. Alagh, The Indian Express, 16 March, 2015, please click here to access  

 

Image Courtesy: Inclusive Media for Change/ Shambhu Ghatak
 


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